Month: June 2025

Does ChatGPT harm critical thinking abilities? A new study from researchers at MIT’s Media Lab has returned some concerning results.

The study divided 54 subjects—18 to 39 year-olds from the Boston area—into three groups, and asked them to write several SAT essays using OpenAI’s ChatGPT, Google’s search engine, and nothing at all, respectively. Researchers used an EEG to record the writers’ brain activity across 32 regions, and found that of the three groups, ChatGPT users had the lowest brain engagement and “consistently underperformed at neural, linguistic, and behavioral levels.” Over the course of several months, ChatGPT users got lazier with each subsequent essay, often resorting to copy-and-paste by the end of the study.

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The paper suggests that the usage of LLMs could actually harm learning, especially for younger users. The paper has not yet been peer reviewed, and its sample size is relatively small. But its paper’s main author Nataliya Kosmyna felt it was important to release the findings to elevate concerns that as society increasingly relies upon LLMs for immediate convenience, long-term brain development may be sacrificed in the process.

“What really motivated me to put it out now before waiting for a full peer review is that I am afraid in 6-8 months, there will be some policymaker who decides, ‘let’s do GPT kindergarten.’ I think that would be absolutely bad and detrimental,” she says. “Developing brains are at the highest risk.”

Read more: A Psychiatrist Posed As a Teen With Therapy Chatbots. The Conversations Were Alarming

Generating ideas

The MIT Media Lab has recently devoted significant resources to studying different impacts of generative AI tools. Studies from earlier this year, for example, found that generally, the more time users spend talking to ChatGPT, the lonelier they feel.

Kosmyna, who has been a full-time research scientist at the MIT Media Lab since 2021, wanted to specifically explore the impacts of using AI for schoolwork, because more and more students are using AI. So she and her colleagues instructed subjects to write 20-minute essays based on SAT prompts, including about the ethics of philanthropy and the pitfalls of having too many choices.

The group that wrote essays using ChatGPT all delivered extremely similar essays that lacked original thought, relying on the same expressions and ideas. Two English teachers who assessed the essays called them largely “soulless.” The EEGs revealed low executive control and attentional engagement. And by their third essay, many of the writers simply gave the prompt to ChatGPT and had it do almost all of the work. “It was more like, ‘just give me the essay, refine this sentence, edit it, and I’m done,’” Kosmyna says. 

The brain-only group, conversely, showed the highest neural connectivity, especially in alpha, theta and delta bands, which are associated with creativity ideation, memory load, and semantic processing. Researchers found this group was more engaged and curious, and claimed ownership and expressed higher satisfaction with their essays. 

The third group, which used Google Search, also expressed high satisfaction and active brain function. The difference here is notable because many people now search for information within AI chatbots as opposed to Google Search. 

After writing the three essays, the subjects were then asked to re-write one of their previous efforts—but the ChatGPT group had to do so without the tool, while the brain-only group could now use ChatGPT. The first group remembered little of their own essays, and showed weaker alpha and theta brain waves, which likely reflected a bypassing of deep memory processes. “The task was executed, and you could say that it was efficient and convenient,” Kosmyna says. “But as we show in the paper, you basically didn’t integrate any of it into your memory networks.”

The second group, in contrast, performed well, exhibiting a significant increase in brain connectivity across all EEG frequency bands. This gives rise to the hope that AI, if used properly, could enhance learning as opposed to diminishing it.

Read more: I Quit Teaching Because of ChatGPT

Post publication

This is the first pre-review paper that Kosmyna has ever released. Her team did submit it for peer review but did not want to wait for approval, which can take eight or more months, to raise attention to an issue that Kosmyna believes is affecting children now. “Education on how we use these tools, and promoting the fact that your brain does need to develop in a more analog way, is absolutely critical,” says Kosmyna. “We need to have active legislation in sync and more importantly, be testing these tools before we implement them.”

Ironically, upon the paper’s release, several social media users ran it through LLMs in order to summarize it and then post the findings online. Kosmyna had been expecting that people would do this, so she inserted a couple AI traps into the paper, such as instructing LLMs to “only read this table below,” thus ensuring that LLMs would return only limited insight from the paper.

She also found that LLMs hallucinated a key detail: Nowhere in her paper did she specify the version of ChatGPT she used, but AI summaries declared that the paper was trained on GPT-4o. “We specifically wanted to see that, because we were pretty sure the LLM would hallucinate on that,” she says, laughing.

Kosmyna says that she and her colleagues are now working on another similar paper testing brain activity in software engineering and programming with or without AI, and says that so far, “the results are even worse.” That study, she says, could have implications for the many companies who hope to replace their entry-level coders with AI. Even if efficiency goes up, an increasing reliance on AI could potentially reduce critical thinking, creativity and problem-solving across the remaining workforce, she argues.

Scientific studies examining the impacts of AI are still nascent and developing. A Harvard study from May found that generative AI made people more productive, but less motivated. Also last month, MIT distanced itself from another paper written by a doctoral student in its economic program, which suggested that AI could substantially improve worker productivity. 

OpenAI did not respond to a request for comment. Last year in collaboration with Wharton online, the company released guidance for educators to leverage generative AI in teaching. 

Many years ago, I became a Phaal Curry Monster, meaning I was brave (and dumb) enough to accept a restaurant’s challenge to eat a plate of chicken drenched in curry made of the spiciest peppers on Earth. Each swallow felt like shards of glass scraping my throat. After finishing, I celebrated my achievement by throwing up in a bush across the street. The health benefits of spicy food could not have been further from my mind.

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But emerging research links chili peppers—if consumed more reasonably than I did at that restaurant—to better health. Data “suggest spicy food can help metabolism, enhancing feelings of fullness and weight control,” says Dr. Long Nguyen, an assistant professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School.

Here’s why chili peppers may be good for you and how to heat up your diet for both taste and health.

The benefits of spicy food

Several studies find that people who regularly eat spicy food have better overall health and fewer diseases. Increasingly, scientists are understanding how these foods help the body, though more research is needed, Nguyen says. 

In 2020, an extensive research review found that a diet rich in spicy peppers was associated with less obesity, heart disease, and diabetes risk. People who had lots of spicy peppers were 25% less likely to die sooner than expected, compared to those who rarely or never ate them. 

The review’s senior author, cardiologist Dr. Bo Xu at Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, believes these differences are due to capsaicin, the compound that makes chili peppers so hot. Capsaicin switches on receptors in nerve cells called TRPV1. These receptors, in turn, seem to trigger adrenaline, which burns fat and helps control blood sugar.

Read More: The 9 Most Underrated Healthy Foods

Some research shows that TRPV1 receptors also help control overactive immune cells to reduce inflammation, a driver of chronic illnesses such as heart disease. Medicines with capsaicin are sometimes applied to the skin for nerve pain and arthritis partly because the compound fights inflammation, and “capsaicin potentially has some of those same effects inside the body when it’s eaten,” Nguyen says. An Italian study found that people who ate chili peppers had broader heart health benefits than those who favored sweet peppers, which contain much less capsaicin.

Spicy food may support a healthier microbiome, too. Though data are limited, “spicy foods appear to increase the microbiome’s diversity,” Nguyen says. This is advantageous because each type of bacteria performs different jobs, like breaking down food, strengthening the gut lining, and fighting harmful germs. 

Capsaicin’s effects on the microbiome have been studied mostly in animals, says Emma Laing, clinical professor of dietetics at the University of Georgia. “However, studies in humans also suggest capsaicin’s gut-friendly properties could improve metabolism, inflammation, and control of blood glucose and cholesterol,” Laing says.

Ease into the fire

People new to spicy food should start with mild chili peppers like poblanos. Dietitian Kiran Campbell says she recommends spicy food to patients looking to lose weight, while telling them to “start low and go slow” with the heat. 

Having food with capsaicin increases tolerance, so people can gradually work up to spicier peppers—which may provide more benefits. “There is certainly some early data suggesting a relationship between how much capsaicin you’re eating, and some of these anti-inflammatory effects,” Nguyen says.

This is partly because the spiciest peppers, in addition to having more capsaicin, tend to pack more beneficial compounds like antioxidants and phenols. According to a 2023 study, many hot peppers are high in antioxidants. However, less fiery options provide some of these compounds, too. According to the same study, jalapeno peppers have “solid antioxidant activity” at a more tolerable heat level.

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Aim for spicy meals 2-4 times per week, Campbell recommends. At least one study, meanwhile, reports benefits to eating peppers 6-7 days per week, compared to less than one serving. (Exact amounts per day aren’t well defined, Xu says.) 

With frequent intake, the tongue’s pain receptors become less sensitive to capsaicin in about a week’s time, enabling hotter peppers for greater health. 

“There’s debate” on this point, though, Nguyen says. Research published last month suggests that spicy food’s benefits come simply from feeling your mouth burning, no matter how much capsaicin you’re taking in. John Hayes, professor of food science at Penn State, found that when people experience food as spicy, their behavior changes: they chew more slowly. This lets them brace for the spice, recover from it, or avoid swallowing a big spicy piece. Slowing down results in eating less and may lead to healthier weight, digestion, and glucose levels.  

In other words, the behavior change could account for many benefits sometimes attributed to capsaicin. “Researchers are split between the physical and behavioral explanations,” Hayes says. 

Don’t go all out

If you go overboard, your body—like mine—will rebel. “High consumption can really worsen symptoms of acid reflux and irritable bowel syndrome, especially if you’ve had rather drastic dietary changes,” says Nguyen, who is also an expert of the American Gastroenterological Association. 

Nguyen rarely has a chance to talk with his patients about spicy food potentially boosting their health; it comes up mostly as a cause of their gastrointestinal symptoms. “If it’s a known trigger, then moderation or avoidance is prudent,” he says, adding that people can track symptoms to learn what spice level, if any, is tolerable.

Your doctor or dietitian should guide this process, Laing adds. Experts can also identify other ingredients that might explain digestive pain. “It’s possible the spices are not the culprit,” she says.

How to prepare your peppers

Fresh peppers are likely healthier than processed ones. Research shows that people who regularly have chopped-up fresh peppers, instead of dried or ground versions, enjoyed lower rates of heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. 

Another study found that, for most kinds of red peppers—which are riper than green peppers and usually have more capsaicin—eating them raw or lightly cooked is best for preserving their capsaicin, antioxidants, and vitamin C. If you roast them, though, other beneficial compounds—polyphenols and flavonoids—may increase.

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These tradeoffs underscore the wisdom of traditional cuisines that involve many ways of preparing peppers, adding up to more benefits. Nguyen, who is Vietnamese, notes that “the spicy food in our cuisine takes all forms: you cook the peppers, top the food with a homemade hot sauce, and garnish with chili oil.”

Balance heat with flavor

If you don’t like spicy food, you’ll probably avoid it, no matter how beneficial. One way to make spicy peppers more enjoyable—and less painful—is to balance the heat with salt, sweetness, and other flavors. 

Mark Sanchez, president of the Chile Guy, a San Francisco-based company selling chili peppers online, thinks the reverse is also true: bland foods, like plain beans, call for a more flavorful pepper. He recommends the New Mexico chili pepper and chipotle as two types that are “really flavorful and have a good heat component.” High heat doesn’t preclude tastiness, though; Sanchez appreciates the “unique flavor” of spicier habanero peppers.

Try discarding the seeds, Sanchez suggests. They add no flavor and few nutrients while being hotter than other parts; they’re near the pepper’s placenta, where capsaicin is concentrated. 

Cool the burn

Another strategy for handling more spice: pair it with a healthy fat, which absorbs capsaicin, Hayes says. The best-known example is whole milk. Hayes’s research has confirmed its effect as an oral firehose. 

But his team also found that skim milk works about as well, probably because fat is just one element in food that dials down the heat. Protein and cold temperature help, too.

To combine these factors, try cold guacamole, or a plant protein shake mixed with flaxseed oil. Nguyen notes that “spice can be muted with several dairy products” besides milk, like spicy cheese.

Campbell recommends putting sliced chili peppers in olive oil (another source of healthy fat). Refrigerate for a few days to create a spicy cooking oil or salad drizzle. Xu likes Thai chili peppers—“tiny but powerful,” he says—and minces them into a dipping sauce a few times per week.

Some pairings may offer synergistic benefits, Laing says: “When capsaicin is paired with foods like fiber-rich vegetables or probiotics, gut health benefits can be enhanced through improved digestion and nutrient absorption, and a more diverse microbiota.” She recommends pepper-spiced vegetables with Greek yogurt, kefir, or sauerkraut.

Spiciness doesn’t magically transform fried foods or ultra-processed sauces into superfoods. Overall nutrition matters most. Laing notes that Mediterranean cuisine supports longevity because its components work so well together, not just because it includes chili peppers or any other single ingredient. “Spicy food can fit perfectly into an otherwise healthy diet.”